COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Collective nouns are words for groups of people or things. The typical collective noun is a body made up of individual people:
the air force , the army , an audience , a band
Although these collective nouns are singular , they often used with a plural verb , especially when you are thinking of the group as several individual people. When you think of the group more as a unit than as several people, you usually use a singular verb . For example , you can say :
* My family comes from Hong Kong.
* My family were pleased to see me again .
* The staff consists of a manager and four sales assistants .
* The staff are pleased with their pay rise .
* Our team has a good chance of victory.
* Our team have been practicing hard .
* The public rarely gets a say .
* The public are admitted on weekdays .
* The committee is too large .
* The committee are considering further action.
In American English collective nouns usually have a singular verb:
* The orchestra was tuning up .
If you use a singular verb, you usually refer to the body as it ; if you use a plural verb , you refer to the body as they:

NOUNS USED WITH ZERO ARTICLE

Quite a lots of nouns , many of them countable, are used without the articles a\ an or the in certain situations . For example:
* What did you learn at school today ?
* Is Dad back from work yet ?
* We are a long way from home.
* Are you going into town ?
* You ' ll end up in prison !
* Helen is still at college.
Dropping the article is like calling them by their own name.
Nouns used with zero article include the following:
* standard places and institutions , typically used with prepositions , especially to, from, at :
* Few folk go to church nowadays.
* I start university in the autumn.
* Hi ! I ' m phoning from work.
* I never learnt much at school.
The use of zero article indicates general rather than specific reference. You use articles when you are being specific .
WITH ZERO ARTICLE                                                     WITH AN ARTICLE
* I never liked school.                                                        * I went to a good school.
* Jim was sent to prison.                                                     * The work is very demanding.
* I usually walk to work.( = my office or place of work )
In British English you are at school when you are attending a school , but in American English you are in school

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

 We noticed that countable nouns are items (floor , ceiling , door , window , and so on ). By contrast , uncountable nouns , cannot be regarded as items .
Uncountable nouns are typically nouns that do not form plurals. They can be divided into two main types: concrete uncountable nouns and abstract uncountable nouns.
1  ) Concrete uncountable nouns
   Concrete uncountable nouns represent types of food or material ; here are some examples :
    air  , bread , cheese, grass , dust , ink rain , scenery, water  
It is quite helpful to think of these kinds of material and food as mass nouns. Some grammarians actually use the term mass nouns for all countable nouns .
2 ) Abstract uncountable nouns
Abstract uncountable nouns represent qualities or concepts , for example :
 advice , anger , harm , haste , glory sleep , luck , lust etc.
As a general rule , you do not use a | an with uncountable  nouns. You do not say , for example , a milk or an anger.
Nor , again as a general rule, do you make uncountable nouns plural. you do not say , for example, happinesses or rices.
How uncountable nouns are used
1 ) Uncountable nouns are used in general statements :
   * I don' t like cheese.
2 ) They can be used with some in specific situation ; some takes the place of the a | an you use with countable nouns:
* There is some cheese in the fridge and a knife on the table .
3 ) They can be used with the when it is clear what you are referring to :
* Put the cheese back in the fridge.
4 ) They can be used with other determiners , quantity words and possessive forms :
* That cheese is quite delicious !
* I do not eat much cheese .
* My hair needs a wash .
*Granddad 's health is deteriorating.








   

   










   
   
   
   

COUNTABLE NOUNS

Countable nouns are used with the indefinite article a or an if the noun begins with a vowel . When the noun is mentioned for the first time. Countable nouns used in general observations are also used with a / an ( eg Never take a risk unnecessarily) .
When a countable noun is mentioned a second time , it is typically used with the because listeners and readers know which thing or person is meant . The is used with a countable noun if there is one thing or person that the speaker or writer could be referring to.
As well as a / an and  the , you can use determiners such as possessives, demonstratives and quantifiers with countable nouns , and with possessives formed from proper nouns with 's.
Countable nouns can be made plural , and most plurals are formed by adding s ( or es ). Some nouns are used in the plural only( eg clothes , trousers , ) , and some plural forms ( eg people ) don't end in s.
Adjectives can be used before countable nouns , and they typically come between the article ( or determiner) and the noun.
When you use a superlative adjective with a countable noun , you use the before it.
Using the with countable nouns
* you use the  with countable noun when there is only one such thing or person in existence , or only one that you could possibly mean :
* Look at the moon!
* The 

GRAMMAR HELP

Certain proper nouns ( that is nouns with capital letters ) are uncountable. For example
* A person of a certain nationality such as German , is a countable noun.
* The language of certain country such as German , is an uncountable noun .
* Beliefs such as Communism are uncountable nouns.
* The trade names of certain products, such as Coca- cola , are uncountable nouns .
There are some exceptions to the a + consonant and  an + vowel rule :
* You u put an ( not a ) before words begin with an h that is not pronounced as in the following words:
    an heir , an heiress, an heirloom, an honor , an hour
*  You put a ( not an ) before words that begin with a u that sounds like the word you.
*  a uniform , a unicorn , a union, a unit , a university , a user , a utensil , a U- turn

THE FUNCTION OF A NOUN IN A SENTENCE

Nouns can have several different grammatical functions. They can act as the subject or object of a verb , the object of a preposition , the complement of a linking verb , the object complement after a transitive verb, and an adjective used before another noun .
NOUNS AS SUBJECTS
A noun can be the subject of a verb :
* The students were all reading quietly .
* Is that light switch faulty .
* Mum and Dad usually get up about 6 am .
NOUNS ACT AS OBJECTS
A noun can be the object of a verb:
* Have you fed the cat ?
* Please don't interrupt the speaker .
* Did you enjoy the movie ?
NOUNS AS OBJECTS OF A PREPOSITION 
Remember that a preposition always has an object :
* I walked into the sitting room .
* He was working at his desk .
* You are standing on my toe .
NOTE : The preposition can be separated from its object .
*  What gods do they believe in ?
* Which region are you from ?
Two nouns may be joined by a conjunction such as and or, and share the grammatical function of subject of a verb , or object of a verb or a preposition:
* Gales and rain showers will develop tonight .
* Please don ' t leave your coats and bag here .
* I wiped the dust off the tables and chairs .
NOUNS AS COMPLEMENTS AFTER LINKING VERBS
A noun can be a complement after a verb such as be or become:
* I feel a fool  .
* Be a man .
* I became an actress quite by an accident ,
NOTE: A verb that takes a complement , such as be or become is called a linking verb .
NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS AFTER TRANSITIVE VERBS
A noun  can also be a complement after  a transitive  verb , a verb that takes an object . The complement is attached to the object:
* She called { transitive verb } me { object ] a fool [complement ]
NOTE : A verb that takes a complement after an object is called a complex transitive verb .
Verbs such as  elect , vote , make , which take an object complement , can be used actively or passively:
* We voted her the winner. [ active]
* She was voted the winner .[passive]
NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY 
Frequently in English you find a noun used as adjective before another noun ; the first noun describes or defines the second noun:
* Rain clouds were approaching .
* An internet search will give you the answer .
* We are planning to review the school curriculum .
NOTE : A lot of compound nouns are formed from two nouns , where first noun defines or describes the second :
* bookcase , dining room , keyboard , coffee cup , 

NOUNS

Nouns are what you talked about . Nouns are words for people , animals or things.
FORMS OF NOUNS:
* Singular or plural
* with an article ( a, an , the )
*  with a determiner
* with zero article
* phrase
* compound
USES:
* SUBJECT OF A VERB
* OBJECT OF VERB
* OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION
* COMPLEMENT AFTER A LINKING VERB
* OBJECT COMPLEMENT
* ADJECTIVAL BEFORE  ANOTHER NOUN
TYPES OF NOUNS:
* PROPER NOUNS
* names of particular people , animals , places , objects, buildings
COUNTABLE  NAMES eg Germans , Muslims
* UNCOUNTABLE   NAMES  eg Mandarin , Coca- cola , Christianity
* COMMON NOUNS :
* COUNTABLE = CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT
* UNCOUNTABLE = CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT
* COLLECTIVE NOUNS
* COMMON - GENDER NOUNS
* MASCULINE NOUNS
* FEMININE NOUNS
* NEUTER NOUNS
Nouns can consist of two or more words :
Mrs Jones , swimming pool , the great wall of China, school uniforms
A noun such as swimming pool or school uniform or hair - dryer , made up of two words ( often two nouns) , is called a compound noun.
Nouns can be used with articles , possessives and other determiners
We use the articles a / an and the with nouns:
eg , a newspaper , a journalist , the news
* used with possessives : my brother , his friends , their concerns
* used with determiners:
 this room , these cups , that chair
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, animal , place ,or thing , for example:
  September ,Taipei , Reader 's Digest
A common noun is a word for a person , animal , place or thing , for example :
    teenager , butcher , hyena , station , candle , enjoyment
Noons can be singular or plural
The noun is singular when it refers to one item :
  a carpet , the door  , the floor , a wall
The noun is plural when it refers to more than one item :
   windows , curtains , cushions
NOUNS  made plural by adding s , are called countable nouns .
Nouns act as the subjects and objects in sentences
For example:
 The stranger [ subject ] rang the doorbell [object ]
NOUNS ARE WHAT YOU TALK ABOUT 
You may have noticed that most of the words in any general English dictionary are nouns.
* A spider is an animal , not an insect .
* Do we need milk and bread ?
Nouns as abstract things  ( that you can' t see or touch )
 beauty , idea , hope , belief , truth , friendship , silence
Nouns as concrete things :
This include things that you can see or , touch :
 arm , face , knife fork , spoon , paper , pencil
NOUNS for people :
 brother , child , lawyer , libration , manager

TYPES OF PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Some conjunctions can be used with non- finite( or reduced ) adverbial clauses:
* While hunting for a lost necklace ( = while I was hunting for a lost necklace ) I found this .
* When planning a meal , check your complete cupboards for stocks before you go shopping .
Perfect participial plays a big part in the subordinate - clause type of participial phrase; or example:
* Having showered and changed ( = when she had showered and changed ) she returned to the guests' lounge.
* I decided to park safely outside the town , having been fined previously for illegal parking .
BEWARE OF HANGING PARTICIPLE!
Make sure that the subject of the participial phrase and the subject of the main verb are the same person or thing :
RIGHT: While window- shopping one day I was nearly involved in an accident.
WRONG: While window- shopping one day a bus mounted the pavement in front of us.
In the second example , the subject of the main verb is a bus but the subject of the participial phrase is intended to be I. YOU CAN GET SOME ABSURD EFFECT WITH HANGING PARTICIPLES AS HERE , WITH BUS DOING SOME WINDOW-SHOPPING.
There are two ways of rescuing hanging participle:
1)   Make  the subjects same :
* While window- shopping one day, I encountered a bus mounting the pavement in front me .
2 ) Turn the participial phrase into subordinate clause:
* While I was window- shopping one day , a bus mounted in front of me .
INDEPENDENT TYPE :
In some participial phrases the subject of the participle is different from that of the main verb , and the whole phrase , with its subject included , is independent of the main clause :
* Her eyes flashing , Margret addressed her critics.
 * Washing-up done , we sat down to watch television .
SENTENCE ADVERBIALS
Certain participial phrases look as if they are a case of hanging participle , but they have acquired the grammatical status of sentence adverbial ( representing a comment by the speaker ) , so again , are independent of the main verb :
* Strictly speaking , a spider is an animal not an insect .
Participle - free ( or verbless ) non- finite structure :
Adjectival phrases and noun phrases relating to the subject of the main verb can be used with the same effect as the participial phrases . you can visualize a linking participle such as being or looking preceding them):
* White with rage , she slammed the door in his face .
* A pessimist always , I was not expecting much .
Participle- free  structures independent of the subject of the main verb are also possible , but notice that the subject of the independent structure  typically ' belongs ' to the main subject :
* Her face pale with fright , Susan sat motion-less
*

TYPES OF PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Subordinate- clause type
relative -clause type
We saw that post- modifying participial phrases act as relative clause of both the defining and non defining and can be referred to as non- finite or reduced relative clause :
* Defining type: Students wanting immediate employment (= who want immediate employment) should consult their careers adviser.
*Non -defining type : Maggie, looking better for her holidays ( = who was looking better for her holidays) came over to greet me.
Adverbial type clause
Participial phrases can play the part of adverbial clauses , for example clauses of time, reason, concession, result. They can be called non-finite or reduced adverbial clauses. For example:
Time
* Completed at last ( = when it was completed ), a jigsaw is visible proof of your patience .
* Running her eyes down the text ( = as she was running her eyes down the text ) she spotted a mistake .

reason:
* Having no knowledge of the subject (= because I had no knowledge of the subject ), I could contribute nothing to the discussion .
* Humiliated by his retort ( = because I was humiliated by his retort ), I said nothing.
concession:
* Relishing the opportunity for revenge ( = although she was relishing the opportunity for revenge ) , she nevertheless waited patiently for the right movement .
* Disgusted by his treachery ( = though I was disgusted by his treachery ) I still , paradoxically, pitied him .
condition :
* Fed healthy food for six months or so ( = if they are fed healthy food for six months or so ) , these obese children will probably return to a normal body mass .
* Properly packed ( = if they had been properly packed ) , these goods have arrived unbroken .
 result :
* He won first prize , surprising even himself ( = so that he surprised even himself ) ,
          

TYPES OF PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1 ) ADJECTIVAL TYPE
We know that participial phrases can modify nouns and pronouns.They may come before (pre- modifying) or after (post- modifying)the noun or pronoun:
* The people  waiting for the bus got very wet .
* Courses having a bearing on vocation are popular with students seeking a job  immediately after University.
* The meeting scheduled for 10.00 for everyone involved in the project has been postponed.
* Those leaving longer may take a copy ; those staying longer will be given theirs later .
Notice that in post- modifying participial phrases the participle can be followed by: 
* an object: student seeking job 
* a prepositional phrase : everyone involved in the project
* an adverb : those leaving now; those staying longer 
Post- modifying participles and participial phrases can do the work of relative clauses, of both defining and non -defining type:
1   defining type:
* those leaving now ( = those who are leaving now )
2   non- defining type :
* We visited the poet ' s house , now lying empty and badly neglected ( = We visited the poet' s house, which was now lying empty and badly neglected)
Such participles and participial clauses can be referred to as non-finite relative clauses or reduced clauses.
2 ) COMPLEMENT TYPE 
A participial phrase can occur as a complement after a linking verb or after the object of a complex transitive verb .
a ) after a linking verb
:: You seem dissatisfied with the arrangement .
* He grew increasingly subdued depressed .
2 ) after the object of a complex transitive verb such as make and get :
* Where can  I get my car professionally serviced .
* I can usually make myself understood by most people .
3 ) an observing or sensing verb can also have a participial phrase after its object :
* We watched the boxers training in the gym .
* I heard her leaving the house at four -thirty .
3  ) Adverbial type :
Present participles and present - participial phrases can describe the action in a similar way to an adverbial phrase :
* Shaking with silent fury , Sam closed the door again .
* The dog retreated in a corner , licking its wounds .
In some cases the activity represented in the participle phrase comes just before the action in the main clause :
* Picking herself  up again the child ran off quite happily .
* Folding her note neatly , she slipped it into an envelope .
Past participles and perfect participles are used for facts about the subject that precede the action of the main verb :
* Having trained at Loughborough, she was now teaching gymnastics at a private school .
* Born in London , she emigrated to Australia with her family at the age of eleven .





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PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

Participle phrases include a participle . Adjectival participial phrases can pre modify or post modify a noun or noun phrase.
* The afternoon sun, now sinking towards the west, was still too hot for comfort .
* The slowly moving crowds filled the pavement as I emerged from the literally baking interior of the Underground station.
A PARTICIPIAL PHRASE can be the complement of a linking verb , or the object complement of a complex transitive verb ,and can also follow the object of an observing or sensing verb .
* I was letting myself become oppressed by the heat and stress, so I decided to chill out and get myself properly sorted out  by sitting down and having a drink.
Present participial phrases can describe the action like an adverbial phrase , or express action that just precedes that of the main verb
* A man was walking between the tables, moving unobtrusively and behaving suspiciously.
Participial phrases often function like subordinate clauses of reason , concession condition, time and so on, and can even be introduced by conjunctions
* Though inexperienced in street fighting  I resolved to grab him round the legs and bring him to the ground.
Some participial phrases have their own subject , and are independent of the main subject and verb .
* The police having been alerted by this time, sirens were heard in the distance and very soon a police car drew up alongside us.
Certain participial phrases serve as sentence adverbials and are independent of the main object.
* Considering my earlier mood of lethargy and self- pity , and taking into account the possibility that the owner of the purse was still completely unaware of the loss, the incident began to seem quite funny.
So participial phrase is a phrase involving a participle. Such a phrase can have an adjectival or adverbial function , or it may act as a complement . It may even function as a subordinate clause , or it may be independent of the main sentence structure.
Types of participial phrases
* Adjectival type

VERB PHRASES

A verb phrase typically consists of a main verb + one or more auxiliaries, of which may be a model auxiliary .
A verb phrase is a word group that makes up the verb in a sentence. The verb in a sentence may be a single word :
* They lowered the flag .
* We eat sensibly .
But if it consists of more than one word , it is a verb phrase :
* They were lowering the flag .
* Could you help me?
* We have always eaten sensibly .
Make sure you know the difference between a verb phrase and a phrasal verb :
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic combination of verb + one or more adverbial particles or prepositional particles .:
There are certain idiomatic word groups , composed in various ways , that combine with a main verb to function rather like modal verbs . They can be called ' modal combinations '
A phrasal verb :
*We ran into problems .
* Leave out the second paragraph .
A verb phrase :
*  You might have run into problems .
* You can leave out the second paragraph .

SENTENCE ADVERBIALS

Adverbial phrases may also serve as sentence adverbials also called disjuncts . representing a comment by the speaker , and standing clear of the main grammatical structure of the sentence :
* Pretty evidently , she acted out of spite.
* Quite honestly ,I ' d rather just go to bed .
* To a certain extent , that is correct .
* At the end of the day , all that matters is keeping out of bed .
As an alternative you can use to- infinitive .
* To be quite honest , I didn't really want to go .
* To be fair , she was only trying to help.
As well as modifying the action represented by an action verb , an adverbial phrase can be a complement after a linking verb or after the object of a complex transitive verb .
* I 'll be back home soon.
* Your dinner is in the microwave .
* Our name is on the door .
* Keep your steps in time with the music .
There are several adverbial expressions consisting of a pair of time or direction adverbs linked by and :
* The birds bobbed up and down on the waves .
* Figures moved in and out among the trees  .
* I see Fred now and then .
* We walked on and on .
The structure noun    + preposition +noun ,or pronoun +pronoun + preposition + pronoun:
* Little by little  we cleared the mess .
* Disasters came one after the another .
* Stand back to back.
* Hour after hour they waited .
* The two ministers came head to head (= into direct conflict ) over this issue .

TYPES OF ADVERBIAL PHRASES

Adverb modified by an intensifier, moderator , emphasizer ,or other adverb :
  *The party went very well.
    * you are trying too hard .
 *You spoke rather angrily .
 * You are walking fast enough .
* Please speak more slowly .
*They arrived noticeably late .
* That dress fits you quite perfectly.
A prepositional  phrase:
* I hung my coat on the peg .
* Mum was working in the kitchen .
* The taxi drew up beside us .
* Dad sat down in the armchair .
A noun phrase :
* Next day we arrived at Jakarta,
* Sally guessed the right answer every time .
* Last winter the village pond  froze over .
*All night the planes droned overhead .
Adverb of place or time emphasized or modified by another adverb :
* The taxi parked right outside .
*Come over here ,
* I don't want to climb up there .
*When did you get back home ?

Adverbial phrases

An adverbial phrase is any phrase that has an adverbial function in a sentence;
that is,it modifies the action represented by the verb.

• George was walking very briskly.
• George was walking in the woods.
• George was walking towards the flagpole.
• George was walking with great determination.
• George was walking on tuesday evening 

ADJECTIVAL PHRASES USED AFTER A NOUN OR PRONOUN(POST MODIFICATION)

1 a prepositional phrase

• the girl in the ticket office
• anybody with any sense
• people of real integrity
• an operation on the kidneys
• changes to the timetable

2 an adverb of place or time emphasized or focused by another adverb:

• my folks back home
• the rubbish in there
• the weather down here
• the situation  right now
• my mood just then

3 an adjective + prepositional phrase (consisting of a a customary preposition+object):

• the person responsible for the confusion
• people allergic to wheat flour
• something wrong with my computer
• teenagers dependent on drugs

4   a participle phrase:

•     an operation lasting five hours
•  an operation performed with enormous skill
• the people waiting for the bus
• tests set by education inspectors
• chairs made of moulded plastics

5    a noun phrase:

• my operation last year
• her behavior the following day 
• the meeting next week

ADJECTIVAL PHRASES AS COMPLEMENTS:

• subject complement after a linking verb :
• The operation was very successful .
• you are perfectly right .
• My voice sounded strangely loud .
• Is the timetable absolutely up-to-date ?
• Such behavior is typical of teenagers .
• She became disillusioned with teaching .
• Are you still angry with me?
• These questions are not relevant to the main enquiry.
• The strangers were dark-skined and long-haired.
• object complement after the object of a complex transitive verb:
• You've made your mother very proud.
• Consider yourself extremely fortunate.
• The approaching storm had turned the sky quite black.
• We'll paint the walls pale green.
• You've lost yout key?I call that very careless.
• The shock left him incapable of speech.
• My doctor has declared me fit for work.
• I found the content of the programme very up-to-the minute. 

ADJECTIVAL PHRASES

Adjectival phrases are any phrases that do the job of an adjective in describing or modifying a noun or pronoun :
* an extremely skillful operation
* a heart - in -the -mouth operation
* a long awaited operation

* a very successfully operation
* a brilliantly performed operation
* a round -the -clock operation
* an operation on the kidneys 
* The operation was quite painless .
TYPES AND POSITIONS OF ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
Adjectival phrases can come before or after a noun , and can take many different forms.
Adjectival phrases used before a noun ( pre -modification)
1  an intensifier, moderator, or other adverb + adjective :
   * a rather silly remark , miserably cold weather
2  *an adverb +participle :
    * dubiously acquired wealth , a hard -won battle
 3 a possessive expression :
* the headmaster 's room   , last year 's report
4 hyphenated phrases of various kinds
noun phrase
* a ten story building , a seventy foot yacht
phrases based on an adjective
 *a blood -red lipstick , crystal-clear water
a prepositional phrase
*in -your -face language ,an over- the- top  reaction
a phrase based on a participle
* a leather -bound book , sun -dried bananas , index -linked pensions
an adjective or number + noun formed into an -ed participle
* blond haired children ,long -legged animals ,four -winged insects
a phrasal- verb derivative
* some left- over food , a much sought -after delicacy
other combinations
*up -and- down mood swings , wall -to wall carpets

NOUN PHRASES THAT EXPLAIN: APPOSITION

Some time a noun phrase, a noun or proper noun is added with a comma after a noun phrase , to identify the person or thing  or place  you mean more exactly :
* the home of ballet , Russia
* Zubaida ' native tongue , Malay
* the bird of peace , the dove
* the latest fashion , navel jewellery
NOTICE : Expressions such as  that is , that is to say , namely can be used to emphasize the identification:
* Zubaida ' tongue , that is Malay
* Shakespeare 's Scottish play , namely, Macbeth
* the bird of peace , that is to say , the dove
Sometime you add a comma + noun phrase as an explanation after a name  or other noun ;
* Mr Lal, our lab assistant
* Penang , a holiday island off the cost of Malaysia
* pepper ,a substance handy for self defence
The nouns and noun phrases that are in apposition do not necessarily come side by side - they may be separated :
* Ben arrived yesterday , a volunteer worker from Australia
* My aunt always carries her own form of self defence  in her pocket , namely a small pepperpot.
NOUN PHRASES IN THE GRAMMAR OF A SENTENCE
*Noun phrases as subject :
A strange looking balloon was circling overhead .
All the traffic on the motorway slowed down .
The man repairing the road stopped work .
* NOTE: When two noun phrases are linked by AND , and the combination is the subject of the verb , the verb is plural :
* Please note that flash photography and video recording are forbidden .
When the linking conjunction is or , the verb is strictly singular but , in practice , sometimes plural:
* I  think I ' ll invite my cousins John and Jack to my party .
NOUN PHRASES AS DIRECT OBJECT:
* I bought four plastic hooks in the DIY shop.
*Libby sold me her painting of lighthouse .
NOUN PHRASE AS OBJECT OF A  PREPOSITION:
* Please keep us some front -row seats for the show .
* We had to shift an enormous tree lying across the road .
NOUN PHRASES AS INDIRECT OBJECT :
 * Mum used to make my sisters the most wonderful clothes .
*They found the evicted family some temporary accommodation .
NOUN PHRASES AS SUBJECT COMPLIMENT AFTER A LINKING VERB :
*Diana seems right person for this job .
*Geoff has become a terrible bore .
 NOUN PHRASES AS OBJECT COMPLEMENT AFTER A COMLEX TRANSITIVE VERB :
*I call it a major disgrace .
*I painted the door a kind of greenish- brown .
NOUN PHRASES AS ADVERBIALS :
*We will discuss it next week .
*The noise continued all night .
NOUN PHRASES AS CONJUNCTIONS:
* Phone me the minute you hear any news.
* Every time I arrange to meet her , she cancels .

NOUN PHRASES IN CONTEXT

NOUN PHRASES may consist simply of a 'pre- modifying' article or determiner + noun . A pre determiner may come before the article or determiner.
For example:
1 a storm
2 my relations
3 some money
4 the postman

5 these fashions
But in many noun phrases the noun has , besides the article or determiner , one or more adjectives , adjectival phrases , or prepositional phrases before it or after it :
For example :
1 the larger  picture
2 unusual  happenings
3 some wonderful  news 
4 our new neighbours  in the flat opposite
5 an  extraordinarily talented  girl in my class 
6 the in-your-face language typical of today ' s TV soaps 
7 an enormous plate of fish and chips 
8 a politely worded letter to the managing director 
9 last- minute applications for tickets for the show 
10 my parents' old fashioned  opinions about proper behaviour 
11 recent important  changes affecting many school - leavers
NOTICE that  within the adjectival material attached to these nouns there are a lot of ' sub ' noun phrases:
the flat opposite , today's TV soaps,TV soaps, the managing director ,my parents ,tickets for the show , proper behaviour, fish and chips, the show ,many school-leavers
The MAIN NOUN that is being described ( picture, happenings, news, neighbors and so on in the original examples)is said to be the head of the noun phrases.
NOTICE that a pronoun can also be the head of a noun phrases :
* anybody with an interest in saving the planet 
*the brutal few responsible for these atrocities 
* those on income support 
* the starving millions 
*Modification before or after nouns or pronouns 
The adjectival material added before or after a noun or pronoun is called modification. Many different types of modification can be added to a noun or pronoun; for example :
*  before a noun (pre- modification):
 1  a determiner ( or pre- determiner+ determiner) :
    * the frog, my cousin, half the trouble, some products, that factory, all our houses, few reasons, 
2  a number:
*  four blackbirds, two thousand sheep 
 3  one or more adjectives:
 * beautiful weather , a charming hostess . unhealthy, greasy food 
4  a possessive :
    * Helen' method, the city ' drain , tomorrow ' agenda 
5  an adjective modified ( intensified , moderated, emphasized or characterized) by an adverb:
*   an utterly unsuitable outfit, a highly appropriate punishment, the barely audible announcement , a         cheerfully flamboyant outfit 
6  a present or past participle :
     * whirling leaves , a planned pregnancy
7   an adverb + participle :
     * a slowly  moving crowds, their closely observed progress 
8    a descriptive or identifying noun :
     *  mountain scenery , the Singapore skyline 
9    a hyphenated string :
    *  blood- red lipstick , crystal- clear water , a three- hour meeting , made- up stories , sun- dried 
       tomatoes ,longer -lasting lather ,an old - clothes shop, a fruit - and -vegetable shop  ,an on- the -
        spot report , a longed- for break 
*    The  hyphenated string can be any of several kinds of phrase or word group , for example :
   *  a noun phrase ( three- hour , old- clothes) 
    * two nouns linked by a conjunction :( fruit- and - vegetable )
    * a phrase based on an adjective ( blood- red ,crystal -clear )
   * a prepositional phrase ( on- the- spot)
   *a phrase using a participle ( longer-lasting , sun- dried)
   * a form derived from a phrasal verb ( made-up , longed for)

NOUN PHRASE AFTER A NOUN OR PRONOUN (POST - MODIFICATION)

1 An adverb or adjective:
    * the route home , something strange , a court martial , people mad about football , a man capable        of murder  the way in
2   a participle  or participial  phrase:
     * the people dancing , those invited , the lady sitting on your left ,the rubbish strewn over the    ground
3   a prepositional phrase :
   * the things in this drawer , a present for my aunt , a box of books , the city of London , no place like home, plays of Shakespeare , the making of the Roman Empire , the matter of pay ,
NOTICE ALSO that  more complex constructions can be added as modification after a noun or pronoun , for example :
* a to- infinitive : the need to hurry ,time to relax , nobody to talk to ,a mat to stand on
* a clause: the reason why we failed , a theory that gets support nowadays , the discovery that the earth goes round the sun
* construction with as : birds such as macaws , cuisine as varied as Singapore
 NOUN PHRASES THAT EXPLAIN :APPOSITION
For example : my sister jill ,her dog Jupiter ,his partner Vicky , the composer Bach
 Noun phrase added with a comma: our new car, Honda

VERB PHRASES

VERB PHRASES are the words  in a sentence that make up the verb. That is ,a verb that consists of more than one word is a verb phrase. A verb phrase is typically made up of an auxiliary or modal auxiliary verb plus a main verb . But there may be more than one auxiliary :
* I have finished.
* Should we warn them?
* You might have been badly injured.
* Jim had been studying very hard.
*We shall soon be arriving in Switzerland.
* She must have forgotten.
THERE ARE WORD GROUPS that fill the role of other kinds of word class or part of speech. For example:
There are several word groups that act as prepositions:

• on top of  the cupboard         
• out of  the drawer
• according to my dad
• because of  the delay
• in spite of her injury
• away from the town
• in front of the hotel
• along with his friends
• on account of her injury
• in line with  our policy

These are called complex prepositions,NOT prepositional phrases.The term prepositional phrase refers to an adverbial or adjectival phrase that begins with a preposition, such as in bed,at school,with a limp,over the door,beside the railway.
2 There are several word groups that act as conjuctions, for example:

•  so long as it's safe
• last time i tried
• on condition that you pay
• in case it rains
• in view of the fact that it's late
• provided that they agree
• every time I try
• so that everyone gets a turn
• as if he already knew

These multi-word conjunctions can be called complex conjunctions.
The role of present and past particples
Participles can form part of a phrase acting as one of the word classes,or themselves
have the function of a word class,for example:

• Sweat was pouring off his face(part of a verb phrase)
• scattered showers (part of a noun phrase)
• the man leaning against the lamp post(part of an adjectival phrase)
• various points concerning the difficulties.(preposition or part of an independent participal phrase)
• Supposing everything's organised,we can start tomorrow.(conjunction)
• Granted she had a big disadvantage, she should have done better.(conjunction)

The term partcipal phrase is typically used for an adjectival phrase that contains a participle, and comes before or after or after or after a noun or pronoun:

• badly injured passangers
• those sitting at the rear of the train

We shall examine in more detail the roles of participles and participial phrases at the end of this chapter. 

WHAT IS A PHRASE ?

 IN everyday language a phrase is thought of vaguely as any group of words that has meaning but isn't a sentence or clause . In grammatical terms, however, a phrase is a word group that not only has meaning  but also grammatical status . It can have the grammatical status of any of the word clause or parts of speech. That is a phrase may have the function of a noun , adjective,adverb or verb and so on within a sentence.
We shall be looking at four main types of phrase; noun phrase, adjectival phrase,adverbial phrase and verb phrase. We shall also examine the roles of participial phrases.
NOUN PHRASES can have any of the grammatical roles that nouns have. For example;
1 subject of a verb ;
* My younger sister  is arriving tomorrow.
* The new supermarket opens everyday.
2  object of a verb:
*  I found a map of prague in my room
* I have lost my bunch of keys.
3   object of a preposition:
* A number of charities focus on child poverty.
* He arrived home with a cut knee.
4   complement of a linking verb  or object complement after a complex transitive verb:
*  Several of my friends were members of the choir.
* You have made me the proudest mother of the world.
ADJECTIVAL PHRASES act as adjectives, so they describe nouns and pronouns.They can be found in various positions in relation to the thing or person they describe. For example:
1  before a noun :
* an absolutely terrible experience
* on the sport reporting
* one day old chicks
2 after a noun or pronoun :
* anybody with any common sense
* a letter from the landlord
3  as the complement of a linking verb or as an object complement:
* The baby is sound sleep.
* You have made me extremely proud.
ADVERBIAL PHRASES act as adverbs, and can have a variety of adverbial roles:
1  describing or enlarging on the action:
* He died very peacefully.
* He died among his loved ones.
*I 'll see you this evening.
*Toys lay all over the floor.
*The work was completed in less than a month.
2  acting as the complement of a linking verb or as an object complement;
* Jack is at school.
*Joe seems in excellent form.
* The head looks out of proportion.
*Amy imagines herself  in the height of fashion.
*You think me out of touch, don't you?
3 acting as a sentence adverb:
*In my opinion ,Brian should have returned to Ireland.
*In the first place , we haven't enough cash.
* In conclusion I would say that the enterprise was a moderate success.
*Kenneth is still a child  ,in a way.
*To a certain extent  , you are right.
*At the end of the day it ' s audience enjoyment that counts.
*To my dismay , Kay refused my invitation.
*To be honest , I was quite relieved.

THE FUNCTIONS OF A NOUN IN A SENTENCE

NOUNS can have several different grammatical functions. They can act as the subject or object of a verb , the object of a preposition ,the complement of a linking  verb , the object  complement after a transitive verb ,and an adjective used before another noun.
Nouns as subjects
A noun  can be the subject of a verb :*
* The  students were reading quietly.
*  my photos didn't come out clearly.
* Mum and Dad usually get up about 6 am,
*Is  that light switch faulty,
* Hasn't the microwave oven been repaired yet.
Nouns act as objects
A noun can be the object of  a verb:
* Have you fed the cat?
* Please don' t interrupt the speaker.

* Did you enjoy that movie ?*Did you hear the news or the weather forecast.?
*We didn't dare make a sound.
Nouns as objects of a preposition
 Remember that a preposition always has an object (the preposition are in given in the examples below):*
*I walked into the sitting room .
*He was working on his desk.
*You are standing on my toe.
*Which lecture are you going to?
*We often run along the river bank for exercise and enjoyment.
GRAMMAR HELP
THE PREPOSITION CAN BE SEPARATED FROM ITS OBJECT.THIS HAPPENS IN SOME QUESTIONS AND IN CERTAIN OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS THAT WE SHALL DEAL WITH LATER:
* WHAT GODS DO THEY BELIEVE IN?

prepositions

Prepositions are the words ,usually short ones ,that you can use to specify any particular relationship that exists between people or objects ,or between people and objects. Such a relationship can be temporary or permanent, physical or abstract . For example;
1 space [position and direction ]
She sat on this chair.
Glasgow is in Scotland
I walked towards the door.
First two example out of three are used to tell position but third example is telling direction.
Time;
1 I 'll see you at six o ' clock.
2My birthday is on 1 April.
3I sometimes go running before breakfast.
other relationships
Who is the girl with you.
The report was prepared by the marketing department.
Did you see that program about frogs
A PREPOSITION always has an  OBJECT .Its object is the noun , pronoun,or pronoun that follows .
Some animals are active only at night .
I usually travel to school by bus.
you need 200 grams of flour  for this recipe.
Please wait outside the door.
Turn to page 49.
We are moving house at the end of the week.
Look at that1.
Come with with me.
The bus left without him.
THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION CAB BE AN ing form [called a gerund or verbal noun.]
1I AM

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

NOUNS CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE. COUNTABLE TAKE A \AN BEFORE THEM OR BE USED IN THE PLURAL .UNCOUNTABLE ARE NOT USED WITH A \AN OR IN THE PLURAL.
* WE HAVE GOT THREE CHILDREN , TWO CATS, AND A DOG.
*It was good to get out into the countryside and breathe in fresh air
In these two sentences nouns are;  children ,cats,dog , countryside ,air.
Some nouns in English are normally uncountable ;but in other languages are countable.
1 there is always lots of housework to do.
2 Her jewellery  must have cost a fortune.
3Nouns  like ; accommodation, advice,applause,assistance, baggage, camping, cash chaos ,chess ,clothing ,conduct,courage ,cutlery ,dancing ,dirt ,employment ,equipment ,evidence ,fun ,furniture ,harm ,health ,homework ,housing, information ,leisure ,litter ,luck ,luggage ,machinery ,money ,mud ,music ,news ,nonsense ,parking ,pay ,permission ,photography ,poetry ,pollution produce ,progress ,publicity. research ,rubbish ,safety ,scenery ,shopping ,sighting sunshine ,transport ,underwear ,violence ,weather ,work .
A  noun sometimes is used uncountably when we are talking about the whole substance or idea , but countably when we are talking about recognized containers for things . See examples ;I prefer tea to coffee and serve three teas (= cups of tea ), please.
*A type , brand or make of things.
1 There is cheese in the fridge . 2 There were  dozens of cheeses (= kinds of cheese ) to choose from .
*A particular example of a physical or concrete thing , for example ; 1 She has blonde hair .2 There is a hair in my soup .!
*A particular instance of a substance or an idea . For example  , 1The statue was made of stone. and I had a stone in my shoe . She was always good at sport .and Football is mainly a winter sport in Britain.
* There are many nouns like -beer,

THE FUNCTION OF A NOUN IN A SENTENCE

NOUNS MAY BE SINGULAR OR PLURAL. PLURAL NOUNS USUALLY END IN S . BUT SOME PLURAL NOUNS DONOT END IN S.
NOUNS CAN BE USRD WITH THE ARTICLES-THE OR A AN .NOUNS LIKE HOME AND SCHOOL CAN BE USED WITHOUT AN ARTICLE.DETERMINERS SUCH AS POSSESS
IVES, QUANTIFIERS AND DEMONSTRATIVES CAN BE USED WITH NOUNS
*NOUNS NEED NOT TO BE SINGLE WORDS ;THEY MAY BE COMPOUNDS.IT MEANS CONSISTING OF TWO OR MORE WORDS.OR THEY MAY BE PHRASES CALLED NOUN PHRASES
* A NOUN CAN BE THE SUBJECT OR OBJECT OF AVERB,OR THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION.A NOUN CAN BE A COMPLEMENT AFTER A LINKING VERB OR AFTER THE OBJECT OF A TRANSITIVE VERB.A NOUN CAN BE USED ATTRIBUTIVELY, LIKE AN ADJECTIVE,BEFORE ANOTHER NOUN.
THE NAME OF PARTICULAR PEOPLE , PLACES ,THINGS , BUILDINGS AND PUBLICATIONS ARE PROPER NOUNS. THEY HAVE CAPITAL LETTERS. OTHER NOUNS ARE COMMON NOUNS SOME NOUNS CAN BE USED BOTH PROPER AND COMMON NOUNS.
*NOUNS CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE. COUNTABLE NOUN MEANS  IT CAN BE USED WITH A\AN OR MADE PLURAL. UNCOUNTABLE ARE NOT NORMALLY MADE PLURAL,AND CAN BE USED WITHOUT AN ARTICLE. COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS CAN BE BOTH ABSTRACT.
* SOME NOUNS FOR OCCUPATIONS DISTINGUISH BETWEEN MASCULINE AND FEMININE GENDER,BUT MOST ARE COMMON- GENDER. COLLECTIVE NOUNS REPRESENT A GROUP OF PEOPLE ; THEY MAY TAKE A SINGULAR OR PLURAL VERB.

FIGURE OF SPEECH

*FIGURE OF SPEECH- METAPHOR -METAPHOR is an implied simile without  using as ,so ,like.
He is Solomon of our family.
*
PERSONIFICATION- MEANS  NON -LIVING THINGS ARE TREATED  AS LIVING THING.
*THE POEM MIRROR IS BEST EXAMPLE OF  PERSONIFICATION
*HYPERBOLE- WHEN WE EXAGGERATE THINGS *
*SHE WEPT AND FILLED ABUCKETS

FIGURE OF SPEECH -ORNAMENTS OF LANGUAGE

 AS WE EMBELLISH OUR BODY SO DOES  A LANGUAGE. FIRST  FIGURE OF SPEECH IS  SIMILE; LET ME DEFINE SIMILE .SIMILE IS A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO THINGS .TO SHOW COMPARIS0N  WE USE -AS ,SO AND LIKE'
*RAM IS AS BRAVE AS ALION
*SITA IS LIKE ANUSUIYA
*SHE IS SO SMART  THAT NO ONE CAN OUT SMART HER

SECOND DAY AT NAMISH ARANYA

ON second day we all went to take a dip into river Gomtati  which is also called Maruti Ganga .Returning from Gomatee  we saw pandav kila Pandav mandir  HANUMAN MANDIR  Now we decided to visit SOOT GADDI VYAS GADDI SHUKDEV GADDI  MANU SHATRUPA TAP STHALI  SHONAK 88THOUSAND RISHI YAGYASHALA  . EVENING TIME we visited ANIL SHASTRI ' ashram , which is dotted with largest yagyashala fabulously decorated darbar of HANUMAN  VISHNU LAXMI  GANPATI.
Q PICK A SIMPLE SENTENCE.
ANS - On second day we all went to take a dip into river Gomatee
.
2 Returning from Gmati  we saw  pandav mandir hanuman mandir.
3 Now we visited Soot Gaddi SHUK GADDI MANU SHAT TAPSTHALI 88 SHONAK YAGYSHALA.
Q PICK OUT COMPLEX SENTENCE.
On second day we went to take a dip into river gomati which is also called MARUTI GANGA.
Evening time we visited ANIL SHASTRI ASHARAM whichis dotted with largest yagyashala .fabulously decorated altar of HANUMAN LAXMI NARAYAN AND GANPATI.
RULES;
1Asentence with only one finite verb is identified a simple sentence.
2A sentence  with more than one finite verb is known as complex 'Apart from this a sentence which has one main clause or sentence and other remaining clauses are dependent or subordinate for its meaning  these clauses have to combine with main clause. So main clause or principal sentence is like an engine or subordinate clauses are rail compartment.They take subordinate conjunctions .We have to study conjunctions

TEACHING TENSE AND PARTS OF SPEECH

MY TRAVELOGUE TO NAMISHARANAY
On 26 Dec dawn.I boarded the Padmawat express and reached Hardoi .Taking a bus i reached namish.i saw chakrateerth and lalita mandir we stayed in lalita ashram .First day we enjoyed Bhagwat  katha  and saw Badi Chavni kshemkari devi temple  .janki kund .  Next day we went to Misrikh Barmi and Sahasapur  saw Dadhichi kund I enjoyed reading RAMCHARITMANAS for 5 hour
as.They gifted me a gorgeous saree of my favourite color.
Q,ANALYSE THESE SENTENCES.
I boarded the Padmawati express.[tell the tense]
ANS,PAST INDEFINITE TENSE,
Q.ON 26 DEC reached HARDOI.[TELL THE PHRASE]
ANS ON 26 DEC.
TAKING A BUS I REACHED NAMISH.[TELL THE VERB]
ANS,REACHED.
PICK OUT NOUNS.
ANS PADMAWAT HARDOI BUS NAMISH  CHAKRATEERTH LALITA MNNDIR  BHAGWAT BADICHHAVNI KSHEMKARI DEVI TEMPLE JANKIKUND MISRIKH BARMI SAHASAPUR DADHICHIKUND  RAMCHARIT MANAS SAREE COLOR  etc.
Q.TELL PRONOUNS
ANS I WE THEY etc
TELL ADJECTIVE,
ANS GORGEOUS.
TELL PREPOSITION
ON IN  TO FOR etc
Q, TELL CONJUNCTION.
ANS AND